What Do You Know About Scholasticism?

Medieval schoolhouse of philosophy

"Scholastics" redirects here. For other uses, see Scholastic.

14th-century image of a university lecture

Scholasticism was a medieval school of philosophy that employed a critical organic method of philosophical analysis predicated upon the Aristotelian 10 Categories, which endeavored to harmonize his metaphysics with the Latin Catholic dogmatic trinitarian theology. It originated within the Christian monastic schools that translated Judeo—Islamic philosophies and thereby "rediscovering" the collected works of Aristotle. These monastic schools became the basis of the primeval European medieval universities, and scholasticism dominated education in Europe from about 1100 to 1700. ^[1] The rise of scholasticism was closely associated with these schools that flourished in Italy, France, Spain and England.^[ii]

Scholasticism is a method of learning more a philosophy or a theology, since it places a stiff accent on dialectical reasoning to extend cognition by inference and to resolve contradictions. Scholastic thought is too known for rigorous conceptual analysis and the conscientious drawing of distinctions. In the classroom and in writing, it often takes the form of explicit disputation; a topic drawn from the tradition is broached in the form of a question, oppositional responses are given, a counterproposal is argued and oppositional arguments rebutted. Because of its emphasis on rigorous dialectical method, scholasticism was eventually applied to many other fields of study.^{[3] [4]}

Scholasticism was initially a program conducted past medieval Christian thinkers attempting to harmonize the diverse government of their own tradition, and to reconcile Christian theology with classical and belatedly antiquity philosophy, especially that of Aristotle but besides of Neoplatonism.^[v]

The Scholastics, besides known as Schoolmen,^[6] included as its master figures Anselm of Canterbury ("the father of scholasticism"^[7]), Peter Abelard, Alexander of Hales, Albertus Magnus, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham, Bonaventure, and Thomas Aquinas. Aquinas's masterwork Summa Theologica (1265–1274) is considered to be the elevation of scholastic, medieval, and Christian philosophy;^[8] it began while Aquinas was regent master at the studium provinciale of Santa Sabina in Rome, the precursor of the Pontifical Academy of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum. Important work in the scholastic tradition has been carried on well past Aquinas's time, for case by Francisco Suárez and Luis de Molina, and also amid Lutheran and Reformed thinkers.

Etymology [edit]

The terms "scholastic" and "scholasticism" derive from the Latin word scholasticus , the Latinized course of the Greek σχολαστικός ( scholastikos ), an adjective derived from σχολή ( scholē ), "school".^[9] Scholasticus ways "of or pertaining to schools". The "scholastics" were, roughly, "schoolmen".

History [edit]

The foundations of Christian scholasticism were laid by Boethius through his logical and theological essays,^[iii] and subsequently forerunners (so companions) to scholasticism were Islamic Ilm al-Kalām, literally "science of soapbox",^[x] and Jewish philosophy, especially Jewish Kalam.^[11]

Early Scholasticism [edit]

The first pregnant renewal of learning in the Due west came with the Carolingian Renaissance of the Early on Eye Ages. Charlemagne, advised by Peter of Pisa and Alcuin of York, attracted the scholars of England and Republic of ireland. By prescript in AD 787, he established schools in every abbey in his empire. These schools, from which the proper noun scholasticism is derived, became centers of medieval learning.^[12]

During this period, cognition of Aboriginal Greek had vanished in the Westward except in Republic of ireland, where its education and use was widely dispersed in the monastic schools.^{[13] [ not specific plenty to verify ]} Irish gaelic scholars had a considerable presence in the Frankish court, where they were renowned for their learning.^[14] Amid them was Johannes Scotus Eriugena (815–877), ane of the founders of scholasticism.^[15] Eriugena was the nearly meaning Irish gaelic intellectual of the early monastic catamenia and an outstanding philosopher in terms of originality.^[14] He had considerable familiarity with the Greek language and translated many works into Latin, affording access to the Cappadocian Fathers and the Greek theological tradition.^[14]

The other three founders of scholasticism were the 11th-century scholars Peter Abelard, Archbishop Lanfranc of Canterbury and Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury.^[15]

This menstruation saw the beginning of the 'rediscovery' of many Greek works which had been lost to the Latin Westward. As early every bit the 10th century, the Toledo school of translators in Kingdom of spain had begun to gather translated texts and, in the latter half of that century, began transmitting them to the rest of Europe.^[xvi] Later a successful burst of Reconquista in the 12th century, Spain opened even farther for Christian scholars, and as these Europeans encountered Judeo-Islamic philosophies, they opened a wealth of Arab and Judaic noesis of mathematics and astronomy.^[17] Scholars such as Adelard of Bath traveled to Kingdom of spain and Sicily, translating works on astronomy and mathematics, including the first complete translation of Euclid's Elements into Latin.^[eighteen]

At the aforementioned time, Anselm of Laon systematized the production of the gloss on Scripture, followed by the rise to prominence of dialectic (the center field of study of the medieval trivium) in the work of Abelard. Peter Lombard produced a collection of Sentences, or opinions of the Church Fathers and other authorities^[19]

High Scholasticism [edit]

The 13th and early 14th centuries are generally seen as the high period of scholasticism. The early 13th century witnessed the culmination of the recovery of Greek philosophy. Schools of translation grew upwards in Italy and Sicily, and eventually in the rest of Europe. Powerful Norman kings gathered men of knowledge from Italian republic and other areas into their courts as a sign of their prestige.^[twenty] William of Moerbeke'due south translations and editions of Greek philosophical texts in the centre half of the thirteenth century helped form a clearer picture of Greek philosophy, especially of Aristotle, than was given by the Arabic versions on which they had previously relied. Edward Grant writes "Not just was the structure of the Arabic linguistic communication radically different from that of Latin, but some Arabic versions had been derived from earlier Syriac translations and were thus twice removed from the original Greek text. Give-and-take-for-word translations of such Arabic texts could produce tortured readings. By contrast, the structural closeness of Latin to Greek, permitted literal, only intelligible, word-for-discussion translations."^[17]

Universities developed in the big cities of Europe during this period, and rival clerical orders inside the church began to battle for political and intellectual control over these centers of educational life. The two chief orders founded in this period were the Franciscans and the Dominicans. The Franciscans were founded past Francis of Assisi in 1209. Their leader in the middle of the century was Bonaventure, a traditionalist who defended the theology of Augustine and the philosophy of Plato, incorporating only a little of Aristotle in with the more than neoplatonist elements. Following Anselm, Bonaventure supposed that reason can only notice truth when philosophy is illuminated by religious organized religion.^[21] Other important Franciscan scholastics were Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol and William of Ockham.^{[22] [23]}

Past contrast, the Dominican order, a teaching order founded past St Dominic in 1215, to propagate and defend Christian doctrine, placed more than emphasis on the utilise of reason and made extensive use of the new Aristotelian sources derived from the East and Moorish Spain. The corking representatives of Dominican thinking in this menstruation were Albertus Magnus and (specially) Thomas Aquinas, whose aesthetic synthesis of Greek rationalism and Christian doctrine eventually came to define Catholic philosophy. Aquinas placed more emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was 1 of the first to employ the new translation of Aristotle'due south metaphysical and epistemological writing. This was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early scholasticism. Aquinas showed how it was possible to incorporate much of the philosophy of Aristotle without falling into the "errors" of the Commentator, Averroes.^[24]

Castilian Scholasticism [edit]

Late Scholasticism [edit]

Lutheran Scholasticism [edit]

Reformed Scholasticism [edit]

Following the Reformation, Calvinists largely adopted the scholastic method of theology, while differing regarding sources of say-so and content of theology.^[25]

Neo-Scholasticism [edit]

The revival and development from the second half of the 19th century of medieval scholastic philosophy is sometimes called neo-Thomism.^[26]

Thomistic Scholasticism [edit]

As J. A. Weisheipl O.P. emphasizes, inside the Dominican Lodge Thomistic scholasticism has been continuous since the time of Aquinas: "Thomism was always alive in the Dominican Society, small as it was subsequently the ravages of the Reformation, the French Revolution, and the Napoleonic occupation. Repeated legislation of the Full general Chapters, commencement subsequently the decease of St. Thomas, equally well equally the Constitutions of the Order, required all Dominicans to teach the doctrine of St. Thomas both in philosophy and in theology."^[27]

Thomistic scholasticism or scholastic Thomism identifies with the philosophical and theological tradition stretching back to the time of St. Thomas. It focuses not only on exegesis of the historical Aquinas but also on the articulation of a rigorous arrangement of orthodox Thomism to be used as an instrument of critique of contemporary idea. Due to its suspicion of attempts to harmonize Aquinas with non-Thomistic categories and assumptions, Scholastic Thomism has sometimes been called, co-ordinate to philosophers like Edward Feser, "Strict Observance Thomism".^[28] A word of recent and current Thomistic scholasticism tin be establish in La Metafisica di san Tommaso d'Aquino due east i suoi interpreti (2002) by Battista Mondin [it], which includes such figures equally Sofia Vanni Rovighi (1908–1990),^[29] Cornelio Fabro (1911–1995), Carlo Giacon (1900–1984),^[thirty] Tomas Tyn O.P. (1950–1990), Abelardo Lobato O.P. (1925–2012), Leo Elders (1926– ) and Giovanni Ventimiglia (1964– ) among others. Fabro in particular emphasizes Aquinas' originality, especially with respect to the actus essendi or human action of existence of finite beings by participating in being itself. Other scholars such as those involved with the "Progetto Tommaso" seek to found an objective and universal reading of Aquinas' texts.^[31]

Thomistic scholasticism in the English speaking world went into refuse in the 1970s when the Thomistic revival that had been spearheaded by Jacques Maritain, Étienne Gilson, and others, diminished in influence. Partly, this was considering this co-operative of Thomism had become a quest to understand the historical Aquinas after the Second Vatican Council.

Analytical Scholasticism [edit]

A renewed interest in the "scholastic" way of doing philosophy has recently awoken in the confines of the analytic philosophy. Attempts emerged to combine elements of scholastic and analytic methodology in pursuit of a contemporary philosophical synthesis. Proponents of various incarnations of this arroyo include Anthony Kenny, Peter King, Thomas Williams or David Oderberg. Analytical Thomism can be seen as a pioneer part of this movement.^{[ citation needed ]}

Scholastic method [edit]

Cornelius O'Boyle explained that Scholasticism focuses on how to acquire knowledge and how to communicate effectively and then that it may be acquired by others. It was thought that the best style to achieve this was by replicating the discovery process (modus inveniendi).^[32]

The scholasticists would choose a volume by a renowned scholar, auctor (author), as a subject for investigation. By reading it thoroughly and critically, the disciples learned to appreciate the theories of the writer. Other documents related to the book would be referenced, such as Church councils, papal letters and anything else written on the subject, exist information technology aboriginal or gimmicky. The points of disagreement and contention between multiple sources would be written down in individual sentences or snippets of text, known as sententiae. Once the sources and points of disagreement had been laid out through a series of dialectics, the ii sides of an argument would be made whole so that they would be found to be in agreement and not contradictory. (Of course, sometimes opinions would exist totally rejected, or new positions proposed.) This was done in two ways. The start was through philological analysis. Words were examined and argued to take multiple meanings. It was also considered that the auctor might have intended a certain word to mean something different. Ambiguity could be used to find mutual footing betwixt 2 otherwise contradictory statements. The second was through logical analysis, which relied on the rules of formal logic – as they were known at the time – to show that contradictions did not exist but were subjective to the reader.^[33]

Scholastic instruction [edit]

Scholastic instruction consisted of several elements. The get-go was the lectio: a teacher would read an authoritative text followed past a commentary, but no questions were permitted. This was followed by the meditatio (meditation or reflection) in which students reflected on and appropriated the text. Finally, in the quaestio students could ask questions (quaestiones) that might have occurred to them during meditatio. Eventually the discussion of questiones became a method of research apart from the lectio and independent of administrative texts. Disputationes were arranged to resolve controversial quaestiones.^[34]

Questions to be disputed were ordinarily announced beforehand, but students could propose a question to the instructor unannounced – disputationes de quodlibet. In this case, the teacher responded and the students rebutted; on the post-obit day the teacher, having used notes taken during the disputation, summarised all arguments and presented his last position, riposting all rebuttals.^{[33] [35]}

The quaestio method of reasoning was initially used peculiarly when 2 authoritative texts seemed to contradict ane another. Two contradictory propositions would be considered in the class of an either/or question, and each part of the question would have to be approved (sic) or denied (not). Arguments for the position taken would be presented in turn, followed by arguments confronting the position, and finally the arguments confronting would be refuted. This method forced scholars to consider opposing viewpoints and defend their own arguments against them.^[36]

See likewise [edit]

• Actus primus
• Apologue in the Middle Ages
• Aristotelianism
• Chicanery
• History of science in the Centre Ages
• List of scholastic philosophers
• Medieval philosophy
• Nominalism
• Pardes (Jewish exegesis)
• Renaissance of the twelfth century
• Scotism

References [edit]

1. ^ Run into Steven P. Marone, "Medieval philosophy in context" in A. S. McGrade, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the departure between scholastic and medieval monastic postures towards learning, meet Jean Leclercq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham Academy Press, 1970) esp. 89; 238ff.
2. ^ Gracia, Jorge JE, and Timothy B. Noone, eds. A companion to philosophy in the heart ages. John Wiley & Sons, 2008, 55–64
3. ^ ^{a b} Patte, Daniel. The Cambridge Dictionary of Christianity. Ed. Daniel Patte. New York: Cambridge University Printing, 2010, 11132-1133
4. ^ Grant, Edward. God and Reason in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 159
5. ^ Particularly through Pseudo-Dionysius, Augustine, and Boethius, and through the influence of Plotinus and Proclus on Muslim philosophers. In the case of Aquinas, for instance, see January Aertsen, "Aquinas' philosophy in its historical setting" in The Cambridge Companion to Aquinas, ed. Norman Kretzmann and Eleonore Stump (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993). Jean Leclerq, The Dearest of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970).
6. ^ "Schoolmen". Lexicon.com Unabridged. Dictionary.com.
7. ^ Grant, Edward. God and Reason in the Centre Ages. Cambridge Academy Press, 2004, 56
8. ^ Gilson, Etienne (1991). The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy (Gifford Lectures 1933–35). Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. p. 490. ISBN978-0-268-01740-8.
9. ^ "school". "scholastic". Online Etymology Lexicon. σχολή , σχολαστικός . Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project.
10. ^ Winter, Tim J. "Introduction." Introduction. The Cambridge Companion to Classical Islamic Theology. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008. 4–v. Print.
11. ^ Madeleine Pelner Cosman, Linda Gale Jones, Handbook to Life in the Medieval World, p. 391. ISBN 1438109075
12. ^ Colish, Marcia L. Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400. Yale University Printing, 1999, 66–67
13. ^ MacManus, p. 215
14. ^ ^{a b c} "John Scottus Eriugena". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford Academy. 2004-10-17. Retrieved 2008-07-21 .
15. ^ ^{a b} Toman 2007, p. x: "Abelard himself was ... together with John Scotus Erigena (9th century), and Lanfranc and Anselm of Canterbury (both 11th century), one of the founders of scholasticism."
16. ^ Lindberg 1978, pp. 60–61.
17. ^ ^{a b} Grant, Edward, and Emeritus Edward Grant. The foundations of modern scientific discipline in the Middle Ages: their religious, institutional and intellectual contexts. Cambridge University Press, 1996, 23–28
18. ^ Clagett 1982, p. 356.
19. ^ Hoffecker, Andrew. "Peter Lombard, Chief of the Sentences". Ligonier Ministries.
20. ^ Lindberg 1978, pp. seventy–72.
21. ^ Hammond, Jay, Wayne Hellmann, and Jared Goff, eds. A companion to Bonaventure. Brill, 2014, 122
22. ^ Evans, Gillian Rosemary. Fifty key medieval thinkers. Routledge, 2002, 93–93, 147–149, 164–169
23. ^ Gracia, Jorge JE, and Timothy B. Noone, eds. A companion to philosophy in the middle ages. John Wiley & Sons, 2008, 353–369, 494–503, 696–712
24. ^ Hannam, James. The genesis of science: How the Christian Middle Ages launched the scientific revolution. Simon and Schuster, 2011, 90–93
25. ^ Douglass, Jane Dempsey, et al. The Cambridge Companion to John Calvin. Cambridge University Press, 2004, 227–228
26. ^ Edward Feser. "The Thomistic tradition, Part I (archived copy)". Archived from the original on 29 November 2010. Retrieved 2 January 2011.
27. ^ Weisheipl, James (1962). "The Revival of Thomism: An Historical Survey". Archived from the original on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2013-08-21 .
28. ^ http://edwardfeser.blogspot.com/2009/ten/thomistic-tradition-function-i.html Accessed 5 September 2013
29. ^ Vanni Rovighi, Sofia. Treccani Encyclopedia./ Accessed 17 August 2013
30. ^ GIACON, Carlo. Treccani Encyclopedia./ Accessed ix April 2013
31. ^ Encounter Rizzello, Raffaele (1999). "Il Progetto Tommaso". In Giacomo Grasso, O.P.; Stefano Serafini (eds.). Vita quaerens intellectum. Rome: Millennium Romae. pp. 157–161. Archived from the original on 2013-09-28. Retrieved 2013-09-25 .
32. ^ Cornelius, O'Boyle (1998). The art of medicine: medical teaching at the University of Paris, 1250–1400. Leiden: Brill. ISBN9789004111240. OCLC 39655867.
33. ^ ^{a b} Colish, Marcia L. Medieval foundations of the western intellectual tradition, 400–1400. Yale University Press, 1999, 265–273
34. ^ van Asselt 2011, p. 59.
35. ^ van Asselt 2011, p. threescore.
36. ^ van Asselt 2011, pp. 61–62.

Primary sources [edit]

• Hyman, J.; Walsh, J. J., eds. (1973). Philosophy in the Middle Ages. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. ISBN978-0-915144-05-i.
• Schoedinger, Andrew B., ed. (1996). Readings in Medieval Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-509293-6.

Secondary sources [edit]

• van Asselt, Willem J. (2011). Inleiding in de Gereformeerde Scholastiek [Introduction to Reformed Scholasticism] (in Dutch). With contributions by T. Theo J. Pleizier, Pieter 50. Rouwendal, and Maarten Wisse; Translated by Albert Gootjes. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Reformation Heritage Books. ISBN978-1-60178-121-v.
• Clagett, Marshall (1982). "William of Moerbeke: Translator of Archimedes". Proceedings of the American Philosophical Social club. 126 (five): 356–366. JSTOR 986212.
• Decock, Westward. (2013), Theologians and Contract Law: The Moral Transformation of the Ius District (c. 1500-1650), Leiden/Boston, Brill/Nijhoff, ISBN 978-90-04-23284-half dozen.
• Fryde, Due east., The Early Palaeologan Renaissance, Brill 2000.
• Gallatin, Harlie Kay (2001). "Medieval Intellectual Life and Christianity". Archived from the original on 2009-02-01.
• Gracia, J. Grand. and Noone, T. B., eds., (2003) A Companion to Philosophy in the Center Ages. London: Blackwell, ISBN 0-631-21672-3
• McGrade, A. Southward., ed., (2003) The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Lindberg, David C. (1978). Scientific discipline in the Middle Ages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN978-0-226-48232-3.
• Maurer, Armand A. (1982). Medieval Philosophy (second ed.). Toronto: Pontifical Found of Mediaeval Studies. ISBN978-0-88844-704-3.
• Toman, Rolf (2007). The Art of Gothic: Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. photography by Achim Bednorz. Tandem Verlag GmbH. ISBN978-three-8331-4676-3.

Farther reading [edit]

• Trueman, Carl R. and R. Scott Clark, jt. eds. (1999). Protestant Scholasticism: Essays in Reassessment. Carlisle, Eng.: Paternoster Press. ISBN 0-85364-853-0

External links [edit]

• Scholasticon by Jacob Schmutz
• Medieval Philosophy Electronic Resources
• "Scholasticism". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
• Scholasticism Joseph Rickaby, (1908), 121 pp. (also at googlebooks)
• Scholasticism in The Catholic Encyclopedia
• Yahoo! directory category: Scholasticism
• The genius of the scholastics and the orbit of Aristotle, article past James Franklin on the influence of scholasticism on after idea
• Medieval Philosophy, Universities and the Church by James Hannam
• (in German) ALCUIN – Regensburger Infothek der Scholastik – Huge database with information on biography, text chronology, editions.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholasticism

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